Timeline
Prehistory is the longest period of human development. It begins with the appearance of the first humans several million years ago and continues until the end of the Bronze Age. The main phases of prehistory are named after the new materials people used to make their tools—stone, then copper, bronze, and iron. However, each new epoch brought not only new materials, but also significant changes in people's way of life. The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) and New Stone Age (Neolithic) were followed by the "metal" ages: the Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic) and the Bronze Age.
The Bronze Age marked the first time humans created an artificial material that doesn't exist in nature: bronze, an alloy of copper and another metal (initially arsenic, later tin). This age is divided into three periods—early, middle, and late—spanning from around 3200 BCE to around 1100 BCE. During this time, new tribes, known as the Thracians, settled in present-day Bulgaria and continued to live there into the next era. The beginning of the 1st millennium BCE brought a new metal: iron. People initially used it to make jewelry, blades, and weapons like those they made of bronze. Iron, however, proved to be a valuable innovation—it was stronger, more flexible, and easier to work with than bronze.
The Iron Age is divided into two periods: the Early Iron Age (first half of the 1st millennium BCE) and the Late Iron Age (second half of the 1st millennium BCE). By the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, the Thracians had settled permanently in present-day Bulgaria. Ancient Greek authors tell us about their most famous king, Rhesus, who fought in the Trojan War as an ally of the Trojans. Homer, the author of "The Iliad," describes his arrival: a gleaming golden chariot drawn by white horses as swift as the wind, weapons shining like gold, befitting immortal heroes. Indeed, archaeological evidence from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages confirms that the Thracians were not only great warriors but also highly skilled craftsmen—including miners, metallurgists, and artisans.
During the Late Iron Age, the Thracians established their own states. The most famous were those of the Odrysians and the Getae.
During the Roman period, Thracian lands became part of the vast Roman Empire, encompassing two provinces: Moesia and Thrace. These provinces had thriving cities with magnificent squares lined with columns and statues, richly decorated temples, baths, and theaters. The emperor granted large cities the right to mint coins bearing their names. A well-organized network of maintained roads connected settlements across both provinces. This allowed the Roman army to move quickly and effectively when danger arose, enabled people to travel easily between regions, and ensured prompt mail delivery. Along the Danube River—the empire's northern border—ran another vital road. The Roman army guarded the entire riverbank, with soldiers stationed in specially built military camps.
Late Antiquity was a period of great change throughout the Roman Empire, which split into two parts: Eastern and Western. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century under relentless attacks from migrating tribes. The Eastern Roman Empire, better known as the Byzantine Empire, survived for another 1,000 years.
In the 4th century CE, Emperor Constantine I the Great relocated the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul), renaming it Constantinople—"the City of Constantine." He legalized Christianity, which later became the empire's official religion under Emperor Theodosius I (379–395).
During Late Antiquity, the Balkans endured constant attacks from migrating tribes who burned the land and destroyed crops. Agriculture became difficult to sustain, making livestock breeding and metalworking increasingly important for survival. The population sought protection behind the sturdy walls and gates of cities, which often struggled to withstand the assaults. The imperial treasury allocated significant funds to maintain and repair these fortifications.
In these turbulent times, people often found solace in Christianity. Many churches were built across the Balkans during this period.
Bronze Age:
Early: 3200–2000 BCE
Middle: 2000–1600 BCE
Late: 1600–1100 BCE
Iron Age:
Early: 1100–500 BCE
Late: 500 BCE–1st century BCE
Classical Antiquity: late 6th–mid-4th century BCE
Hellenistic Period: mid-4th century BCE–1st century BCE
Roman Period:
1st–3rd century CE
Late Antiquity:
4th–6th century CE